Final Essay: Examining Environmental History
Lila Gaudrault
The University of New England
History 278: Environmental History of the World since 1500
Professor Eric Zuelow
May 13th, 2022
Final Essay: Examining Environmental History
It is difficult to analyze human history without considering the environment. After all, the natural world around us is intertwined with our every action, decision, and innovation. As humans go, so goes the environment. Yet oftentimes, the impacts of our lives on the environment are overlooked. In history classes, we are taught of global explorations, settlements on new lands, world wars, and technological advancements. These events have all shaped our environment in a multitude of ways, and acknowledging their impacts is the first step in both recognizing our whole history and correcting past mistakes that have contributed to environmental degradation, pollution, and climate change. Among the most important topics in environmental history are the coming of the Europeans to the New World and the subsequent changes that occurred, the Industrial Revolution, and 20th century innovations that maximized human control over the land. Additionally, it is necessary to become a student of one’s own connection to environmental history through the study of the land we occupy and continue to evolve.
Environmental history is an interdisciplinary study, combining the fields of biology, geology, and, of course, history itself. But while traditional history examines human decisions, environmental history seeks to analyze these actions with a larger environmental context. Thus, while this course sought to analyze environmental history after 1500, to fully understand the discipline we must look to a larger timeline. Roughly 200 million years ago, the spreading of the singular continent, Pangea, created a variety of different environments across the globe, with diversity of flora and fauna. Humans, being as adaptable as we are, built cultures around their surrounding environments, letting the climate, natural resources, and local species drive their everyday lives. This led to the creation of a distinctive division between the Old World, with its east-west orientation, and the north-south oriented New World. Among these differences included a more diverse variety of plants and animals in the New World, and domestication in the Old World, which subsequently led to invasive plants, pests, and disease (with herd immunity resulting). It was during the 15th and 16th centuries, when these two worlds interacted thanks to increased European exploration, that these practices began to overlap, heavily favoring Old World ways of life and land manipulation. These Old World methods consisted of not simply working with the land, but also consciously exerting control over nature in an attempt to improve it. For example, when Europeans conquered the Guanche people, taking over the Canary Islands in the process, their first actions were to aggressively modify the land the Guanches had survived on for generations, introducing imported species of plants and animals, most notably sugar, which led to deforestation, erosion, and ultimately, a shifting of the land’s character. Similarly, Europeans brought their practices to North America. A narrative we are often tempted to believe is that, in comparing European lifestyles to those of Native Americans, we are in fact comparing an untouched landscape to one modified by humans. However, in his book, Changes in the Land, historian William Cronan argues against this idea. Both Native Americans and Europeans participated in altering the land, each in their own unique ways. Says Cronan, “the choice is not between two landscapes, one with and one without a human influence; it is between two human ways of living, two ways of belonging to an ecosystem” (footnote 2). For Natives, this meant controlled burns, using seasonal diversity to drive their practices, and embracing a variety of methods to find sustenance, from hunting and fishing, to traditional agriculture. For Europeans, animal domestication, the introduction of new species to the region, and clear-cutting forests to create patterns in the landscape were commonplace. And as more and more settlers flocked to the New World, bringing with them ambition and disease, Native American practices were gradually overshadowed. The convergence of these two worlds is arguably one of the most significant events in our environment’s history because it laid the groundwork for a future where nearly every corner of the world utilizes the same practices. Though far from the globalization seen today, this era allowed for ideas and practices to be spread–or more often imposed–across the world in ways they never had before.
As Theodore L. Steinberg writes in his essay, An Ecological Perspective on the Origins of Industrialization, the Industrial Revolution “reworked the earth’s landscape,” and “profoundly affected humankind’s relationship with the natural world.” Indeed, few, if any, periods in history have produced such rapid and profound environmental change. Beginning in Britain, the revolution was set in motion by an increased cotton demand, availability of cheap, unskilled labor (thanks to a rapidly growing population), and advancements in transportation, and driven by slavery in the West Indies and southern United States. A “new technology and material culture” also began to emerge (footnote 4). Yet these changes were not without environmental expense. As discussed in the “Urban Life in the Nineteenth Century” lecture, multiple aspects of life and the environment were impacted. The air in major cities, including London, resembled a “pea soup fog.” High population densities meant a lack of burial spaces for the dead, excessive sewage dumped into rivers, and poor water quality. Pollution from gas and coal plants filled neighborhoods with “smoke & foul smells,” harming plants, soiling clothing, and exacerbating health issues in the process. Yet this phenomenon was not limited to Britain alone. Instead, as the Industrial Revolution spread around the globe, nearly every major city underwent significant environmental changes, few of them positive. Beyond the bustling hubs of London, New York, and Philadelphia, smaller, less populated regions were similarly impacted. The relatively quiet state of Maine, and its capital, (at the time) Portland, saw industrialization, population growth, and pollution on a large scale. As a whole, the Industrial Revolution proved to be a catalyst for urbanization, technological advancement, and ultimately, pollution and environmental degradation, around the globe. It is a period that altered the land more quickly and significantly than nearly any other, and thus should be analyzed by every student studying our environment’s history.
Though the Industrial Revolution saw its peak in the early-to-mid 19th century, its quest for innovation and improvement lingered far into the subsequent decades. Indeed, the 20th century was, in the words of British historian Paul Kennedy, a time of “environmental havoc.” Fueled by a quadrupling in the global population and “unprecedented” economic activity, the century saw dramatic increases in everything from mining and agriculture (with, of course, the growth and development of chemical-based farming), to ocean pollution and reductions in air quality. It is impossible to summarize the environmental changes that took place during the 20th century in a few short sentences or paragraphs. J.R. McNeill’s book, Something New Under the Sun, does a rather concise job of it at 452 pages. Yet, in broad terms, the 1900s are significant not so much due to new innovations and practices, but rather exponential increases in current ways of modifying the land. For example, water manipulation, such as the creation of dams and diversions, was nothing new, yet the scale on which it was practiced grew dramatically during the 20th century, leading to widespread consequences including silt accumulation, salinization, and fishery depletion. Yet at the same time these vast environmental changes were taking place, a shift was occuring in the court of public opinion. Instead of viewing the land as a commodity or something to be aggressively controlled, individuals began to regard nature as valuable; something to be protected. This movement had been set in motion in the previous century, as the rise of industrialization gave way to feelings of nostalgia and a desire to return to a more primitive lifestyle, one devoid of loud factories and constant pollution. Yet the 20th century saw this idea move from the pages of Wadsworth’s poems to tangible legislation. The latter part of the century included a slew of environmental legislation in the United States, from the Clean Air Act and Toxic Substances Control Act, to the creation of Earth Day. Citizens formed grassroots initiatives to protect their hometown lands, and the government, more often than not, listened. The two environmental narratives of the 20th century, one of growth and pollution and control over the land, the other of preservation and commitment to protecting the natural world, may be nearly polar opposites, yet are also inextricably intertwined. Thus, the 20th century as a whole is a topic of utmost importance when studying environmental history. It has inevitably led us where we are today, shaping the global society of connection, economic pursuit, and, more than ever, focus on land conservation and natural resource protection.
The final aspect of environmental history that cannot be overlooked is not so much a topic, but instead an exploration, unique to each historian and student: The history of one’s own community and land. As we spend time analyzing major developments around the globe, discoveries, innovations, and pollution in the name of economic pursuit, it is often far too easy to feel disengaged. After all, most of these events occurred decades or even centuries ago, on faraway lands or across oceans. It is not until we can tangibly connect our own lives to environmental history that the discipline truly becomes relevant, and subsequently opens the door for further study and understanding. I believe that this is the most important aspect of environmental history. When we study our land–the ways in which it was utilized by both Native Americans and Europeans, how it changed from industrial activity and human interventions, the species and resources and patterns that define it–we not only gain a firmer grasp on the space we occupy, but can also begin to take steps to impact it for the better. In my own study of my hometown’s history, I walked away from the project with a deeper appreciation for the place I call home and a desire to honor and preserve its past. I also felt more connected to other aspects of the course. I could empathize with the families living near Love Canal, watching their homeland turn into a toxic waste dump, and see the perspective of the Native Americans whose land was forever changed due to dam construction. A connection to the land in our own communities is the first logical step in understanding environmental history from a global perspective, thus necessitating its importance for any student of the discipline.
As described above, the highlight of this course for me was exploring my own hometown’s history. The project felt much less like an assignment than an genuinely interesting research exploration. I enjoyed pouring over archives from the local Historical Society at the town library, visiting the landmarks I learned about, and ultimately feeling a much richer connection to the place I’ve called home for 19 years. Additionally, I appreciated communicating my findings through a medium I enjoy, writing. Yet I know that for some, a project so heavy in essay writing may be a major challenge or even deterrent to their enjoyment and learning. I would recommend that future students have the option to create their final project as a documentary film, class presentation, or, of course, written work. This would allow students to learn through a medium they excel at and enjoy. The shorter papers may still be required–after all, writing is such an important skill–yet the final project could be more of a reflection of the student’s field of interest.
The diversity of this course–from readings, documentaries, class discussions, and lectures–made it interesting and engaging for me. Material was presented in a variety of ways, which accommodated different learning styles and allowed for deeper understanding of the material. One recommendation would be to space documentaries and lectures a bit more evenly. The earlier part of the semester was heavy in lectures, while the latter portion included more films. I would have appreciated a documentary on topics discussed in the first half of the course, and a lecture on topics covered in the second. Yet overall, both the documentaries and lectures were engaging and ensuing discussions were always thought-provoking.
Finally, I appreciated the graded system of note-taking to ensure completion of the assigned readings. While some texts were long and heavy in verbiage, I was forced to read carefully and truly interact with the material through summarizing, asking questions, and making connections in my notes. Perhaps, similar to my suggestion with the Hometown History paper, the note-taking system could be expanded to accommodate different styles of learning. Students could create mind maps or record videos summarizing their takeaways, for example. While I enjoyed the current system, others may benefit from other options to convey their knowledge.
As a nursing major who was initially disappointed to learn that my high school AP Government class wouldn’t cover the university’s Human Traditions requirement, I enjoyed this course far more than anticipated. The diversity of content made the material engaging, and I finished the semester with a better grasp of the study of environmental history and how it relates to our world, both past and present. Through studies of European exploration and the convergence of the Old and New World, industrialization, and 20th-century environmental and cultural shifts, others too can expand their understanding of the discipline. Yet it is not until one engages with the origins of their own community that they can truly appreciate and internalize environmental history. One must see the relevance of their studies in their own lives to fully understand it, and above all, I am grateful that I had the opportunity to do so in this course.
